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1.Lewis Mumford,The City in History:Its Origins,Its Transformations,and Its Prospects(New York:MJF Books,1961),13;关于词源学(etymology)的见解,在此特别要感谢罗文·富拉德(Rowan Flad)与沙穆斯·汗(Shamus Khan)。

2.Alexis de Tocqueville,Democracy in America(New York,Perennial Classics,2000),511.

3.Gunnar Myrdal,An American Dilemma,Vol.2,The Negro Social Structure(New York:McGraw-Hill Publishers 1964[1944]),810.

4.Plato,The Republic(New York:Penguin Classics,1987),312.原文是men(男人),我将之改成了people(人)。

5.Mary Schwartz and Ellen Wilson,Who Can Afford to Live in a Home?A Look at Data from the 2006 American Community Survey(Washington,DC:US Census Bureau,2007).

6.Chester Hartman and David Robinson,“Evictions:The Hidden Housing Problem,”Housing Policy Debate 14(2003):461-501.

7.Gary Evans,“The Environment of Childhood Poverty,”American Psychologist 59(2004):77-92;Shigehiro Oishi,“The Psychology of Residential Mobility:Implications for the Self,Social Relationships,and Well-Being,”Perspectives on Psychological Science 5(2010):5-21;Robert Sampson,Great American City:Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2012).

8.事实上,我们可以在学者中间观察到一种中产阶级式的偏见。他们想当然地认为,搬家是计划当中的事。关于居住流动性研究中的“蓄意偏见”(intentionality bias),进一步参见Matthew Desmond and Tracey Shollenberger,“Forced Displacement from Rental Housing:Prevalence and Neighborhood Consequences,”Demography(52)2015:1751-72。关于穷人在居住上的高流动性,参见David Ihrke and Carol Faber,Geographical Mobility:2005 to 2010(Washington DC:United States Census Bureau,2012);Robin Phinney,“Exploring Residential Mobility among Low-Income Families,”Social Service Review 87(2013):780-815。

9.这项发现来自于一个负二项模型(negative binomial model)。该模型估算了租房者的搬家次数,并将家庭收入、种族、教育水平、性别、家庭状况、年龄、犯罪前科,还有三种近期生活中遭遇的重大打击(失业、分手/离婚、被驱逐)纳入计算范畴。分析发现:控制“非自愿搬迁”这项变量后,在其他条件相同的情况下,低收入与流动率存在正相关。相比那些躲过迫迁命运的租户,曾经历过迫迁的房客在流动率上要高出1.3倍。参见Matthew Desmond,Carl Gershenson,and Barbara Kiviat,“Forced Relocation and ResidentialInstability Among Urban Renters,”Social Service Review 89:227-62。“密尔沃基最穷困的租房者”是指收入分布位于底部1/4的租房家庭(即年收入低于12204美元)。《密尔沃基地区租户调查》(2009-2011)。

10.关于密苏里州杰克逊县的情况,参见Tara Raghuveer,“‘We Be Trying’:A Multistate Analysis of Eviction and the Affordable Housing Crisis,”B.A.thesis.(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University,Committee on the Degrees in Social Studies,2014)。2012年,纽约市的房屋法庭经手了28743笔驱逐判决,外加217914笔以未缴租为由提出的驱逐申请。参见New York City Rent Guidelines Board,2013 Income and Affordability Study,April 4,2013。克利夫兰作为一个有95702户租房家庭的城市,在2012和2013年累计有11072笔与11031笔驱逐申请——这意味着每年将近有12%的租房家庭会收到驱逐法庭的开庭通知。参见Northeast Ohio Apartment Association,Suites Magazine,“Eviction Index,”2012-2013;American Community Survey,2013。芝加哥在2012年大约有32231笔驱逐申请,相当于该市租房存量的7%;参见Kay Cleaves,“Cook Eviction Stats Part 5:Are Eviction Filings Increasing,”StawStickStone.com,February 8,2013。

11.Matthew Desmond and Carl Gershenson,“Housing and Employment Insecurity Among the Working Poor,”Social Problems 63(2016):46-67.

12.驱逐会推动房价上涨,使事态进一步恶化。简单地说,房东会把受租金管制的房子里的房客赶走,再以高于市场行情的价格把房子出租。即便是没有租金管制的出租单位,房东也照赶不误;因为向新房客涨房租要比向旧房客涨容易。以密尔沃基的公寓而言,租户每多住一年,他缴纳的房租就会比其他条件相同的房客少将近58美元。流动促进涨租,而驱逐正在不断地创造流动。Matthew Desmond and Kristin Perkins,“Are Landlords Overcharging Voucher Holders?,”working paper,Harvard University,June 2015.在旧金山,根据《埃利斯法案》(Ellis Act)判定的驱逐案件数——业主常利用《埃利斯法案》将受租金管制的房子登记成独立产权公寓(condo),或可按市价收租的单位——在2010年3月到2013年2月间成长了170%。Marisa Lagos,“San Francisco Evictions Surge,Report Finds,”San Francisco Gate,November 5,2013.

13.Matthew Desmond and Rachel Tolbert Kimbro,“Eviction’s Fallout:Housing,Hardship,and Health,”Social Forces 94(2015):295-324.

14.Desmond et al.,“Forced Relocation and Residential Instability Among Urban Renters.”

15.滞后应变量回归模型(lagged dependent variable regression models)的结果显示:相对于自愿搬迁,一次强制性搬迁的经历会使社区的穷困程度和犯罪率产生超过1/3个标准差的增幅。不分模型,在预测社区生活品质随着搬迁下降的指标中,要数种族(租房者是否为非裔)和搬迁性质(是否迫迁)的信度跟效度最高。Desmond and Shollenberger,“Forced Displacement from Rental Housing.”

16.Sampson,Great American City;Patrick Sharkey,Stuck in Place:Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress toward Racial Equality(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2013).

17.这项发现记录在我和瑞秋·金布罗(Rachel Kimbro)联名发表的《驱逐之后果》(“Eviction’s Fallout”)中。我们用“二分指标”(dichotomous indicator)检测了一些母亲身上的抑郁症状。母亲们会被问及一系列问题,主要和她们近十二个月的生活状态有关。问题依据的是“复合国际诊断访问简表”(Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form〔CIDI-SF〕)。我们向受访者提问:过去一年里,她们是否曾连续两周或以上出现烦躁不安(dysphoria,抑郁症的状态)或失乐(anhedonia,无法感受到正常人认知中的愉悦)的状况。如果有,我们会继续追问这些症状是否会在两周内天天发生,且每次发生会持续将近一天的时间。如果依旧是肯定的回复,我们就会列举更详细的问题,包括:(一)对事物失去兴趣,(二)感觉疲惫,(三)体重变化,(四)失眠,(五)难以集中注意力,(六)觉得自己没有价值,(七)有想死的念头。受访的母亲如果觉得自己有烦躁不安或失乐的其中一项,还符合上述七个症状的任意两个,“复合性国际诊断访谈表——短版——重度抑郁分数”(CIDI-SF MD)达到三分或以上的话,就会被归为疑似抑郁症的个案。这项研究发现有力改变了抑郁量表的割点(cut-point),也深刻影响了受测者自陈抑郁症状的负二项模型。参见Ronald Kessler et al.,“Methodological Studies of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview(CIDI)in the US National Comorbidity Survey(NCS),”International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 7(1998):33-55。

18.Michael Serby et al.,“Eviction as a Risk Factor for Suicide,”Psychiatric Services 57(2006):273-74.Katherine Fowler et al.,“Increase in Suicides Associated with Home Eviction and Foreclosure during the US Housing Crisis:Findings from 16 National Violent Death Reporting System States,2005-2010,”American Journal of Public Health 105(2015):311-16.

19.Sampson,Great American City.

20.这一结果参考的是2005年到2007年间密尔沃基社区层级的资料。利用滞后反应模型(lagged-response model),我预测了某个社区一整年的暴力犯罪率。当中我控制的变量包括该社区前一年的暴力犯罪率和驱逐率,也包括贫穷家庭、非裔美国人、十八岁以下人口、教育程度在高中以下的人口、领取租房补贴的家庭在社区所占的比例。最终的模型记录显示:社区的暴力犯罪率与其前一年的驱逐率存在显著的关联性(B=.155.p<.05)。参见Matthew Desmond,“Do More Evictions Lead to Higher Crime?Neighborhood Consequences of Forced Displacement,”working paper,Harvard University,August 2015。

21.《密尔沃基地区租户调查》(2009—2011)。

22.United States Conference of Mayors,Hunger and Homelessness Survey(Washington,DC:United States Conference of Mayors,2013);Martha Burt,“Homeless Families,Singles,and Others:Findings from the 1996 National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients,”Housing Policy Debate 12(2001):737-80;Maureen Crane and Anthony Warnes,“Evictions and Prolonged Homelessness,”Housing Studies 15(2000):757-73.

关于居住品质不良和治安环境不佳对儿童健康造成的影响,参见Julie Clark and Ade Kearns,“Housing Improvements,Perceived Housing Quality and Psychosocial Benefits from the Home,”Housing Studies 27(2012):915-39;Tama Leventhal and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn,“The Neighborhoods They Live In:The Effects of Neighborhood Residence on Child and Adolescent Outcomes,”Psychological Bulletin 126(2000):309-37。

23.Joseph Harkness and Sandra Newman,“Housing Affordability and Children’s Well-Being:Evidence from the National Survey of America’s Families,”Housing Policy Debate 16(2005):223-55;Sandra Newman and Scott Holupka,“Housing Affordability and Investments in Children,”Journal of Housing Economics 24(2014):89-100.

24.换到其他的市场,要是某样商品太贵,民众可以选择不买或买少一点。遇上油价大涨的日子,百姓可以选择少开车。玉米歉收使牛肉价格上涨时,人们可以少吃点汉堡。但遇到房租或水电价格大涨,大多数贫困的美国人并不能换住便宜一点或小一点的房子,因为他们居住的城市中并不存在这样的选项。根据2013年的《美国住房调查》(American Housing Survey,表C-02-RO),在贫穷线以下的租房家庭中有98%左右住在至少有一间卧室的公寓里,68%住在有两间或两间以上卧室的公寓。在密尔沃基,97%的租房者生活在一卧、二卧或三卧的公寓里。参见《密尔沃基地区租户调查》(2009—2011)。小户型公寓在美国城市里已然绝迹。在1970和1980年代,超过100万间廉租单人房(single-room occupancy,SRO)因为住房新标准的颁布与实施而消失,抑或在精装修后用以满足较为富裕的房客的需求。详见Whet Moser,“The Long,Slow Decline of Chicago’s SROs,”Chicago Magazine,June 14,2013;Brendan O’Flaherty,Making Room:The Economics of Homelessness(Cambridge,Harvard University Press,1996),142-47;James Wrightand Beth Rubin,“Is Homelessness a Housing Problem?”Housing Policy Debate 2(1991):937-56;Christopher Jencks,The Homeless(Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1994),chapter 6。

如果不想因为搬迁而远离他们的工作、朋友、家人和熟悉的社区,低收入房客就只有做“二房东”,接纳额外的房客,进而使人均住房的面积缩小(租金也对应地减少)。但许多房东并不允许这么做。就算房东愿意对政策规定的入住人数上限睁一只眼闭一只眼,公寓人一多就意味着维修成本和水费也会“水涨船高”。密尔沃基大部分(75%)的租房家庭无须承担水费。关于房东与物业经理如何看待居住人数、维修成本与水费账单之间的关联,我们可以参考乔·帕拉钦斯基(Joe Parazinski),一位在旧城区生活和工作的白人大楼管理员的言论。“如果我允许(更多)人搬进来,房子里有可能一下子会挤满10个人。嗯,10个人每天要冲10次澡……还有马桶,原本一天要冲20次的马桶,现在变成要冲200次。洗衣机呢?洗衣机现在要多洗多少人份的脏衣服……把这些乱七八糟的花费叠加起来,数目可就不小了。”

倡议居住权益的社工往往认为人多是个问题,但租房子的穷人却觉得人多才能解决问题——“人满为患”固然有一些负面影响,但穷人面临的更严重的问题是住的地方“不够挤”——他们多花了不少冤枉钱,住在自己无法负担的大房子里。美国大多数贫困的租房家庭都“不够挤”;这些家庭里,每间卧室入住人数在1.5人以上的占24%。在密尔沃基,每间卧室入住人数超过2人的家庭只占全部租房家庭的8%。按照每间房住超过两个人就算是“拥挤”的定义来看,密尔沃基仅有4%的白人房客、8%的黑人房客和16%的拉丁裔房客居住在拥挤的公寓里。密尔沃基将近半数的成年房客未与其他成人同住。说到居住安排,密尔沃基的非裔美籍房客算是最孤立的群体:他们当中只有35%的人与另外一名成年人同住,远低于白人房客的58%与拉丁裔房客的69%。在密尔沃基的所有房客中,32%的人独居,16%的人只和孩子同住,53%的人与另外一名成年人同住。黑人房客中有39%独居;相较之下,白人的独居比例约为33%,拉丁裔为14%。黑人房客中有26%只与孩童同住,显著高于白人房客的9%与拉丁裔房客的17%。不过,部分受访的房客可能隐瞒了和其他成年人同住的事实,尤其是在房东不知情的情况下。在《密尔沃基驱逐法庭研究》(2011)中,受访的房客被要求列出所有与他们共同生活的成年人。采访者们向调查对象解释说,他们的信息将被保密,然后问他们:“可以说说与你同住的成年人吗?即便他们的姓名不在租约上,即便你的房东并不知道他们的存在。”驱逐法庭上的房客总共列出了375名合作的成年人,其中有70位并不是租赁人。在传票和诉状(Summons and Complaint)上未列出的成年人当中,以黑人男性为最大宗(总计32人),再来是黑人女性(总计24人)。这样看来,我对于黑人房客独居(或未与其他成年人同居)的比率预估应该有“灌水”之嫌,实际情况应该没那么高。但这并不会改变我认为“租房处普遍拥挤”和“政客专家们对拥挤表示担心”两者其实对不起来的看法。《美国住房调查》(2013),表C-02-RO;《密尔沃基地区租户调查》(2009—2011)。

研究资料已有显示,拥挤状况会导致不利结果,但是并没有足够有效的证据能证明,拥挤就是原因所在。参见Gary Evans,Susan Saegert,and Rebecca Harris,“Residential Density and Psychological Health among Children in LowIncome Families,”Environment and Behavior 33(2001):165-80;Dominique Goux and Eric Maurin,“The Effect of Overcrowded Housing on Children’s Performance at School,”Journal of Public Economics 89(2005):797-819;Claudia Solari and Robert Mare,“Housing Crowding Effects on Children’s Well-Being,”Social Science Research 41(2012):464-76。

25.Alex Schwartz,Housing Policy in the United States,2nd ed.(New York:Routledge,2010),23.

26.Louis Winnick,“The Triumph of Housing Allowance Programs:How a Fundamental Policy Conflict was Resolved,”Cityscape 1(1995):97.引言来自于查德·费迪垂克(Chad Fredidrichs)导演的纪录片《普鲁特-艾格计划的迷思》(The Pruitt-Igoe Myth,2011)。

27.Alex Kotlowitz,There Are No Children Here:The Story of Two Boys Growing Up in the Other America(New York:Random House,1991);Arnold Hirsch,Making the Second Ghetto:Race and Housing in Chicago,1940-1960(New York:Cambridge University Press,1983).

28.公共住房的存量自1991年以来,已经下降了20%左右。Peter Marcuse and W.Dennis Keating,“The Permanent Housing Crisis:The Failures of Conservatism and the Limitations of Liberalism,”in A Right to Housing:Foundation for a New Social Agenda,eds.Rachel Bratt,Michael,Stone,and Chester Hartman(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2006),139-62;Rachel Bratt,Michael,Stone,and Chester Hartman,“Why a Right to Housing Is Needed and Makes Sense:Editor’s Introduction,”in Ibid.,1-19;Schwartz,Housing Policy in the United States.

29.更确切地说,租房券弥补了房客无力支付的差额,使其能达到“给付标准”(payment standard)。这是由当地发放租房券的城市房屋委员会所设定的补贴上限。这个方案将3/4的租房券发放给收入低于该地区收入中值的三成、或在贫穷线以下的家庭(低于其中之一即可),剩余的则会分发给收入为地区中值80%的家庭。

30.Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University,America’s Rental Housing:Evolving Markets and Needs(Cambridge:Harvard University,2013);ABT Associations Inc.et al.,Effects of Housing Vouchers on Welfare Families(Washington,DC:US Department of Housing and Urban evelopment,2006);Michelle Wood,Jennifer Turnham,and Gregory Mills,“Housing Affordability and Family Well-Being:Results from the Housing Voucher Evaluation,”Housing Policy Debate,19(2008):367-412.

31.Abt Associations Inc.et al.,Effects of Housing Vouchers;Alan Meyers et al.,“Public Housing Subsidies May Improve Poor Children’s Nutrition,”American Journal of Public Health 83(1993):115.同时参见Sandra Newman and Scott Holupka,“Housing Affordability and Investments in Children,”Journal of Housing Economics 24(2014):89-100.

32.《美国住房调查》(2013),表C-17-RO。这些估算排除了被归类为有“其他收入证明”(other income verification)(占低于贫穷线租房家庭的3%)与“补贴未申报”(subsidy not reported)(占低于贫穷线租房家庭的1%)的两类家庭,因为无法确认这些家庭是否领取了补贴。Matthew Desmond,“Unaffordable America:Poverty,Housing,and Eviction,”Fast Focus:Institute for Research on Poverty 22(2015):1-6.

33.关于公共住房的资金需求,参见Meryl Finkel et al.,Capital Needs in the Public Housing Program,Contract#C-DEN-O2277-TO001,Revised Financial Report,Prepared for the US Department of Housing and Urban Development(Cambridge:Abt Associations Inc.,2010)。

34.这项估计值与全美多个资料组保持一致。其中包括美国住房调查(American Housing Survey)、美国社区调查(American Community Survey)、收入与社福参与调查(Survey of Income and Program Participation)和消费者支出调查(Consumer Expenditure Survey)。参见Frederick Eggers and Fouad Moumen,Investigating Very High Rent Burdens Among Renters in the American Housing Survey(Washington,DC:US Department of Housing and Urban Development,2010)。

负担不起房子的问题不囿于美国。在过去几十年里,世界各地有数百万人口从乡村和小镇迁出,搬入城市。1960年,全球范围内有1/3左右的人口住在都会区。现如今,这个数字已经过半。城市实质性收入的大幅提升缓解了贫困问题;但是,城市的成长还伴随着地价与房价的飙升。全世界的城市住房支出都在蹭蹭往上涨——尤其在一些“大都会”——那里的房地产市场汇聚了来自全球各地的资本。投资热钱不断垫高房价,把低收入住户拼命往外赶。在非洲最大的城市拉各斯(Lagos,位于尼日利亚),60%的居民需要拿收入的五到七成缴纳房租,虽说大部分人的住所只有一居室而已。印度德里的商业区租金已经可以和曼哈顿中城分庭抗礼。一项近期的研究估计,以全球而言,居住负担能力与实际房价(租)的差额(housing affordability gap)达到了6500亿美元,也是世界所有国家GDP总额的1%。全球大约有3.3亿个城市家庭居住在不合标准或难以负担的房子里,住房租金占去了他们三成以上的收入。按照目前“从乡村到城市”的人口流动趋势和全球收入水平的预测,到2025年,花大钱住破房子的家庭会达到4.4亿户左右,相当于16亿人口。在城市化的浪潮中,无法承担城市住房的人口正以百万为单位,越变越多。参见Jospeh Gyourko,Christopher Mayer,and Todd Sinai,“Superstar Cities,”American Economic Journal:Economic Policy 5(2013):167-99;McKinsey Global Institute,A Blueprint for Addressing the Global Affordable Housing Challenge(New York:McKinsey,2014);Pedro Olinto and Hiroki Uematsu,The State of the Poor:Where Are the Poor and Where Are They Poorest?(Washington,DC:World Bank,Poverty Reduction and Equity,2013)。

35.Russell Engler,“Pursuing Access to Justice and Civil Right to Counsel in a Time of Economic Crisis,”Roger Williams University Law Review 15(2010):472-98;Russell Engler,“Connecting Self-Representation to Civil Gideon,”Fordham Urban Law Review 37(2010):36-92.

36.D.James Greiner,Cassandra Wolos Pattanayak,and Jonathan Hennessy,“The Limits of Unbundled Legal Assistance:A Randomized Study in a Massachusetts District Court and Prospects for the Future,”Harvard Law Review 126(2013):901-89;Carroll Seron et al.,“The Impact of Legal Counsel on Outcomes for Poor Tenants in New York City’s Housing Court:Results of a Randomized Experiment,”Law and Society Review 35(2001):419-34.

37.Seedco,Housing Help Program,South Bronx,NYC(New York:Seedco Policy Center,2009).

38.密尔沃基将近半数的迫迁是非正式的:没有走法律渠道,也没有记录在册。非正式驱逐俨然成了房东最爱用的赶人方法。贫困家庭一旦找到法律援助,房东就不大乐意出庭了。房客本可以坚持主张开庭,但不少人宁可和房东私了,因为他们不想身上背有“记录”。因此,任何法律援助的发起方都应该考虑当下法庭保留记录的做法。

保留记录、公开信息的做法,使司法系统产生了极大的变化:驱逐记录成了一种“武器”,庭上的法官和庭下的房东都会以此要挟房客,让他们放弃陈词的权利。与其上庭争个脸红脖子粗,房客倒不如直接跳过司法程序:房东要你走,你就静静地走。如果出庭只能换得法院下令赶人外加背上驱逐记录,那我必须直言,美国的司法体系真是大有问题。

美莎(Meysha)和切斯特(Chester)是一对贫困的黑人夫妇,他们遭到了房东的驱逐;后者要求他们搬离那座问题丛生、危险破败的房子。据房客称,房东说在她把房子修好之前,他们可以免费住在这里;房东则说才没这回事。双方唯一的共识是屋况极差:电线外露、部分房间地板凹陷,下雨的时候还会有水灌进屋里。看过屋子的照片后,法律专员将案子转呈给法官。等到正式开庭那天,房东太太带着律师,拿出一份协议要他们签,上面写着他们得尽速搬离。但美莎和切斯特有两个十多岁的女儿还在读书,所以他们想留下来等房子修好。出于这样的考虑,他们打算在陪审团面前争取留下来的机会。法官这样解释了他们手上的选项:如果他们同意离开,“(房东太太)会略过(本案中提及)驱逐的部分,所以在公开记录上不会记载你们是被驱逐的……如果觉得自己该付的租金都付了、或是有其他理由可以在法律层面为自己辩护,你们可以一五一十地告诉我。这是一条路。另外一条路是跟房东签约,自行离开,这样双方都可以省去不少麻烦。因为……如果租约到期了你们不搬,那(房东)就得自掏腰包找治安官把你们的东西移到街上,到时候他们肯定会把这笔费用算在你们欠的账上。真要到了那一步,你们会非常辛苦,感到遗憾、不适,还很残忍”。

“我想请问,”切斯特开口,“如果我们有合约说,我们在她修好房子前不用付房租呢?”

“这样的话,我们就要开庭来审审看,判断合约的真假,在法律上有没有效力。”法官答道。

美莎和切斯特跟法官要了几分钟让两人讨论。“就算打官司也赢不了的,”美莎小声说,“只是输多少钱的问题罢了。”

最后他们接受了房东太太的条件。

一些未被驱逐或逮捕过的人主张,庭审记录应当开诚布公,这样才有利于我们建立一个“自由开放的社会”。他们认为,增设法庭记录的权限是在替不民主的政府操作铺路:秘密警察、私下抓人、黑牢,天知道还会有别的什么东西。相对于记录遭滥用是如何“真实”地摧残着许多家庭的生活,这些凭空想象的疑虑似乎只是空中楼阁。数以万计的美国家庭(包括许多从未犯法的家庭)正被法庭的驱逐记录逼得走投无路。让我们先来处理真实存在的问题吧,不要杞人忧天地担心那些根本不存在的问题。

39.Martha Davis,“Participation,Equality,and the Civil Right to Counsel:Lessons from Domestic and International Law,”Yale Law Journal 122:2260-281;Raven Lidman,“Civil Gideon as a Human Right:Is the U.S.Going to Join Step with the Rest of the Developed World?,”Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 15(2006):769-800.

40.引用自Cass Sunstein,The Second Bill of Rights:FDR’s Unfinished Revolution and Why We Need It More Than Ever(New York:Basic Books,2004),3。

41.引用自Beryl Satter,Family Properties:House the Struggle over Race and Real Estate Transformed Chicago and Urban America(New York:Metropolitan Books,2009),215。

42.“剥削”(Exploitation)一词在威廉·朱利叶斯·威尔逊(William Julius Wilson)的The Truly Disadvantaged:The Inner City,the Underclass,and Public Policy,2nd ed.(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2012[1987])中综述正统马克思主义的部分出现过两次。还有两次是在威尔森的When Work Disappears:The World of the New Urban Poor(New York:Knopf,1996),他在该书中描述了黑人是如何排斥正统马克思主义的。洛伊克·华康德(Loïc Wacquant)的Urban Outcasts:A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality(Malden,MA:Polity Press,2008)列举了四处“剥削”的例子,但其中仅有一处是在指穷人被富人剥削(123n7页)。“剥削”在道格拉斯·梅西(Douglas Massey)和南希·丹顿(Nancy Denton)的American Apartheid:Segregation and the Making of the Underclass(Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1993)里“登场”过一次;是在176页,指旧城区居民间的不法性关系(sexual liaison)。在素德赫·文卡特斯赫(Sudhir Venkatesh)的American Project:The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto(Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2000)里,“剥削”也只在150页出现过一次,指的是住宅区的租房者遭到帮派分子剥削。而在哈林顿(Harrington)的The Other America中,“剥削”同样只出现过一次(32页)。至于其他在内容上着重探讨穷人的苦难,却从未出现“剥削”一词的现代经典作品有:Kathryn Edin and Laura Lein,Making Ends Meet:How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low-Wage Work(New York:Russell Sage Foundation,1997);Charles Murray,Coming Apart:The State of White America,1960-2010(New York:Random House,2012)。

43.关于贫困社区中的食物售价,参见Chanjin Chung and Samuel Myers,“Do the Poor Pay More for Food?An Analysis of Grocery Store Availability and Food Price Disparities,”Journal of Consumer Affairs 33(1999):276-96;Marianne Bitler and Steven Haider,“An Economic View of Food Deserts in the United States,”Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 30(2011):153-76。

44.Lizabeth Cohen,A Consumers’Republic:The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America(New York:Knopf,2008),40;Elizabeth Blackmar,Manhattan for Rent,1785-1850(Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1989),237-38;Jacob Riis,How the Other Half Lives:Studies Among the Tenements of New York(New York:Penguin Books,1997[1890]),30;Allan Spear,Black Chicago:The Making of a Negro Ghetto,1890-1920(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1967);Matthew Desmond,“Eviction and the Reproduction of Urban Poverty,”American Journal of Sociology 118(2012):88-133.众人当中,民主党前参议员丹尼尔·帕特里克·莫伊尼汉(Daniel Patrick Moynihan)可说慧眼独具。他意识到,若要了解城市里按种族划分的贫困现象,“剥削”绝对是问题的核心。他在美国劳动部(US Department of Labor)做的一份震惊全场的报告中指出:“白人往往只能看到黑人被歧视或是贫穷的处境……对于白人来说真正困难的,是理解长达三百年的剥削对黑人社会之肌理产生了怎样的影响……这才是伤害真正的所在之处。除非它可以被弭平和修复,再多的努力也难以终结美国社会上的歧视、贫穷和不公不义。”Daniel Patrick Moynihan,The Negro Family:The Case for National Action(Washington,DC:US Department of Labor,1965).

45.我能想到这点得归功于萨特(Satter)的Family Properties。

46.关于这些抢钱吸血的勾当,参见Alan Andreasen,The Disadvantaged Consumer(New York:The Free Press,1975);Michael Lewis,The Big Short:Inside the Doomsday Machine(New York:Norton,2010),20;David Caplovitz,The Poor Pay More(New York:The Free Press,1967)。关于发薪日贷款如何运作,参见Pew Charitable Trust,Payday Lending in America:Who Borrows,Where They Borrow,and Why(Washington,DC:Pew,July 19,2012);Gary Rivlin,Broke,USA:From Pawnshops to Poverty,Inc.(New York:Harper,2010)。

47.关于市场跟政府、社会关系之间密不可分的关系,参见Mark Granovetter,“Economic Action and Social Structure:The Problem of Embeddedness,”American Journal of Sociology 91(1985):481-510;Karl Polanyi,The Great Transformation:The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time(Boston:Beacon Press,2001[1944])。关于贫穷与警方执法之间的关联,参见Megan Comfort,“When Prison Is a Refuge:America’s Messed Up,”Chronicle of Higher Education,December 2,2013;David Garland,The Culture of Control:Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2001);Loïc Wacquant,Punishing the Poor:The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity(Durham:Duke University Press,2009);Bruce Western,Punishment and Inequality in America(New York:Russell Sage Foundation,2006);Alice Goffman,On the Run:Fugitive Life in an American City(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2014)。

48.Oliver Cromwell Cox,Caste,Class,and Race:A Study in Social Dynamics(New York:Doubleday and Company,1948),238.

49.Katie Dodd,Quarterly Benefits Summary(Newcastle-upon-Tyne:Department for Work and Pensions,2015);Hugo Priemus,Peter Kemp,and David Varady,“Housing Vouchers in the United States,Great Britain,and the Netherlands:Current Issues and Future Perspectives,”Housing Policy Debate 16(2005):575-609;BBC News,“Housing Benefit:How Does It Work?,”November 9,2011.

50.相较于租房券,尚无研究可以证明,补助项目能以较低的价格提供同等质量的住房。关于公共住房与租房券的政策成本比较,参见Janet Currie,The Invisible Safety Net:Protecting the Nation’s Poor Children and Families(Princeton:Princeton University Press,2006),chapter 4;Amy Cutts and Edgar Olsen,“Are Section 8 Housing Subsidies Too High?,”Journal of Housing Economics 11(2002):214-243。

关于租房券持有者与公共住房住户的社区生活质量对比,参见Sandra Newman and Ann Schnare,“‘...And a Suitable Living Environment’:The Failure of Housing Programs to Deliver on Neighborhood Quality,”Housing Policy Debate,8(1997):703-41;Edgar Olsen,“Housing Programs for Low-Income Households,”in Means-Tested Transfer Programs in the United States,ed.Robert Moffitt(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2003),365-442。

51.Brian Jacob and Jens Ludwig,“The Effects of Housing Assistance on Labor Supply:Evidence from a Voucher Lottery,”The American Economic Review 102(2012):272-304;Mark Shroder,“Does Housing Assistance Perversely Affect Self-Sufficiency?A Review Essay,”Journal of Housing Economics 11(2002):381-417;Sandra Newman,Scott Holupka,and Joseph Harkness,The Long-Term Effects of Housing Assistance on Work and Welfare,Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 28(2009):81-101.

52.事实上,许多推行住房方案的国家并没有设定最低住房标准,这与美国在有限范围内实施租房券的情况有所不同。当一个国家的所有公民都负担体面的房子时,就无须设定最低住房标准了。房子若是不合心意,房客完全可以拿着租房券去住别的地方。参见Priemus et al.,“Housing Vouchers in the United States,Great Britain,and the Netherlands,”582。

53.Riis,How the Other Half Lives,201.

54.即便让租房券方案通行全美,我们的问题也无法全部解决。尤其在供需吃紧的市场,租房券不能保护所有租户,使他们免受租金上涨的威胁。唯有政府的大力调控(例如租金管制),抑或市场的变动(例如扩大住房供给),才有可能达成保护租房者的目标。

事实上有一些(不算多的)证据显示,现行的租房券方案正在推高所有人的房租——持有租房券的人和一般租房者的房租都变贵了。原因很简单:如果数以百万计的穷人离开民间租房市场,转之投靠公共住房,民间的租房需求就会下降,租金也会同步下降。如果将这些手持租房券的房客重新引向民间租房市场,那么民间租房的需求就会增加,房租也会同步上升。一项研究发现,在租房券发放较多的城市里,租金的涨幅也较高。总的来说,租房券对一般房客造成的负担,要大过它对弱势群体的帮助(参见Scott Susin,“Rent Vouchers and the Price of Low-Income Housing,”Journal of Public Economics 83(2002):109-52.)许多“房东指南”都提出了如下的建议:“房东要定期查看公共住房的租金行情,包括政府出资的补贴标准,以此作为租金设定的一项参考。”(Bryan M.Chavis,Buy It,Rent It,Profit!:Make Money as a Landlord in Any Real Estate Market[New York:Touchstone,2009],70.)但也有研究显示,大量的租房券持有者并不会影响出租房的整体价格。比方说,“实验性住房补助方案”(Experimental Housing Allowance Program,EHAP)发现租房券对于市场租金的影响微乎其微。威廉·阿普加尔(William Apgar)认为造成这种结果的原因在于,租房券在市场并未实现完全饱和;租金在研究期间还有可能被人为压低了。参考EHAP的资料,美国国家经济研究所(National Bureau of Economic Research)和都市研究机构(Urban Institute)主持的模拟研究显示:“无论租户是否接受补贴,住房补贴确实会诱发租金上涨;它还会使房东减少、甚至放弃对未达到补贴项目标准的出租单位的投资。”参见William Apgar Jr.,“Which Housing Policy Is Best?,”Housing Policy Debate 1(1990):1-32,9。同时参见Michael Eriksen and Amanda Ross,“Housing Vouchers and the Price of Rental Housing,”working paper,University of Georgia,2015。

55.Matthew Desmond and Kristin Perkins,“Are Landlords Overcharging Voucher Holders?,”working paper,Harvard University,June 2015;Cutts and Olsen,“Are Section 8 Housing Subsidies Too High?”;Olsen,“Housing Programs for Low-Income Households.”关于居住成本的管控,参见Tommy Andersson and Lars-Gunnar Svensson,“Non-Manipulable House Allocation with Rent Control,”Econometrica 82(2014):507-539;Richard Arnott,“Time for Revisionism on Rent Control?”Journal of Economic Perspectives 9(1995):99-120。

美国住房与城市发展部近期公布了一项计划:面向住房券持有人,提供“更符合当地租房市场情况”的补贴。该计划提出了一种随各州邮政编码(ZIP code)变化的“小区域公平市场租金”(Small Area Fair Market Rents)。相较于现行规定,它能顾及更大范围的给付标准。参见US Department of Housing and Urban Development,“Establishing a More Effective Fair Market Rent(FMR)System;Using Small Area Fair Market Rents(SAFMRs)in Housing Choice Voucher Program Instead of the Current 50th Percentile FMRs;Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,”Federal Register 80(June 2,2015):31332-336。

56.Bipartisan Policy Center,Housing America’s Future:New Directions for National Policy(Washington,DC:Bipartisan Policy Center,2013),chapter 4.关于推估政策成本的技术资料,参见Larry Buron,Bulbul Kaul,and Jill Khadduri,Estimates of Voucher-Type and Emergency Rental Assistance for Unassisted Households(Cambridge,MA:Abt Associations,2012)。2012年,联邦预算在房屋所有人身上的投入累计达2000亿美元。参见Will Fischer and Barbara Sard,Chart Book:Federal Housing Spending Is Poorly Matched to Need(Washington,DC:Center for Budget and Policy Priorities,2013)。针对开放注册的租房券计划,还有一项研究也试着做了成本推估,参见William Grigsby and Steven Bourassa,“Section 8:The Time for Fundamental Program Change?,”Housing Policy Debate 15(2004):805-34。这项研究估计,若将租房券计划扩大到各地中位数收入五成以下的租房家庭,需要额外投入430亿美元,这在当时等于联邦支出的2.5%。

57.Schwartz,Housing Policy in the United States,45-47.

58.Ibid.Executive Office of the President,Budge of the United States Government:Fiscal Year 2008(Washington,DC:Office of the President,2008).

59.Harrington,The Other America,157-58.A.Scott Henderson,Housing and the Democratic Ideal:The Life and Thought of Charles Abrams(New York:Columbia University Press,2000);Peter Dreier,“Federal Housing Subsidies:Who Benefits and Why?,”in A Right to Housing:Foundation for a New Social Agenda,eds.Rachel Bratt,Michael,Stone,and Chester Hartman(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2006),105-38.